The jack-o’-lantern has a long history with Halloween, although our favorite demonic faces haven’t always been carved out of pumpkins.
Their origin comes from an Irish myth about Stingy Jack, who tricked the Devil for his own monetary gain. When Jack died, God didn’t allow him into heaven, and the Devil didn’t let him into hell, so Jack was sentenced to roam the earth for eternity. In Ireland, people started to carve demonic faces out of turnips to frighten away Jack’s wandering soul. When Irish immigrants moved to the U.S., they began carving jack-o’-lanterns from pumpkins, as these were native to the region.
But how did jack-o’-lanterns become associated with Halloween? Halloween is based on the Celtic festival Samhain, a celebration in ancient Britain and Ireland that marked the end of summer and the beginning of the new year on November 1. It was believed that during Samhain the souls of those who had died that year traveled to the otherworld and that other souls would return to visit their homes.
In the 8th century CE, the Roman Catholic Church moved All Saints’ Day, a day celebrating the church’s saints, to November 1. This meant that All Hallows’ Eve (or Halloween) fell on October 31. Traditions from Samhain remained, such as wearing disguises to hide yourself from the souls wandering around your home. The folklore about Stingy Jack was quickly incorporated into Halloween, and we’ve been carving pumpkins—or turnips—ever since.
All governments manage their territories with laws. This is easy enough to understand with respect to solid ground: when you look at a map, borders usually mark where the authority of one country ends and another’s begins. But what about maritime countries, which either border or are completely surrounded by the sea? Do their laws stop at the shoreline? Would that mean that the seas beyond are lawless?
The high seas are not lawless. Well, not completely. According to international law, a maritime country extends outward some distance from its shoreline. During the 20th century several attempts to develop an international “law of the sea” have been made under the aegis of the United Nations. The results of the third and most-recent United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (which took place in Montego Bay, Jamaica, in 1982) were largely successful, with more than 160 countries having signed the agreement by 2017. Several countries, including the United States and others with significant ocean-facing and sea-facing coastlines (such as Colombia, Venezuela, and Turkey) had yet to sign the agreement, however.
Generally speaking, the law of the sea stipulates that maritime countries essentially control their territorial waters from the shore out to a distance of 12 miles (19.3 km), the “12-mile limit.” Within this zone, all laws of that country apply: the country can build, extract natural resources, and either encourage or forbid sea passage through it (or flights over it) just as if it were a parcel of land.
Maritime countries are also entitled to an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) made up of the water column and the seabed out to a distance of 200 miles (about 322 km). (The sizes of some EEZs may be limited by the presence of the EEZs of other countries, in which case the overlapping area is often divided equally between the various parties.) The maritime country that owns the EEZ also owns the sea life and mineral resources found within it, but it cannot prevent ships, aircraft, and other vessels from foreign countries from passing through it and over it.
Nevertheless, there is still a lot of ocean beyond the world’s 12-mile limits and EEZs. How are legal matters handled in the vast stretches of ocean beyond? In these regions, vessels and aircraft from any country are free to pass through, fly over, fish, and extract mineral resources. With respect to crimes committed in these areas, the laws of the country owning the vessel or structure upon which the crime has been committed hold sway. This may seem pretty straightforward, but vessels in the sea are often on the move, which creates jurisdictional headaches for investigators and government officials. For example, which country’s laws apply when a person from Country X commits a murder aboard a cruise ship owned by Country Y in international waters, but between the time of the crime and its discovery the ship enters the territorial waters of Country Z?
With respect to international crimes—such as piracy, human trafficking, and crimes against humanity—any country or international organization can theoretically claim authority over the matter using the concept of universal jurisdiction. This concept could be used to justify the right of one party or another to thwart the criminal activity as it happens, bring charges against the assailants, and try the assailants in their own national (or international) courts. Since the laws of individual countries and international courts are not recognized by all countries, however, there is often no fully accepted referee. Government officials in one country might choose not to recognize the legal authority of another.
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