1 Around the World:
Because of its strategic location, Afghanistan has become a cultural center, with one historian calling it the 'ancient world.' Those settled included the Persians, under Darius the Great (522-486 BCE), and the Greeks, led by Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE). Many modern cities are built on Greek bases. Buddhist civilization flourished from the end of the first century CE, with its kings ruling over Bamiyan until the end of the 10th century. The Arab invasion of Kandahar in 699-700 brought the Muslims intensified as the Turks gained power in Iran, Afghanistan, and India. The Mongolian Genghis Khan invaded the 13th century. Over the next few centuries, Afghanistan was warred against various Indian and Persian empires. Finally, in the 18th century, a group of Pashtun tribes under Durrani (aka Ahmad Shah Abdali) defeated the Mogul and the Persians and united its vast but unstable empire.
Great Game:
During the 19th century, Afghanistan was captured in the Anglo-Russian power struggle known a' ‘The Great Game. Britain attempted to rule Afghanistan under the totalitarian rule but was largely defeated in the first Anglo-Afghan war (1839-42). The monarchy tried again in 1878-80; this time, Afghanistan has lost much of its territory and control of its foreign affairs to Britain. To keep Russia closed and defend its Indian colony, Britain provided modern weapons and annual support to the Afghan rulers. One of these was Abdur Rahman Khan (1881-1901), better known as 'Iro' Amir' and 'Unification of Afghanistan.' He built a mighty army. In 1893 the Durand line repaired the border with British India, but tribal territories were divided, leaving only half of Pakistan. At his death in 1901, Abdur Rahman Khan was succeeded by his son, Habibullah.
Liberal manœuvres:
Habibullah was a free man who introduced the modern style of education. After World War I, the pressure was mounting to achieve complete independence. Afghan scholar Mahmoud Tarzi presents several newspapers. After the assassination of King Habibullah in 1919, his son Amanullah took the throne and proclaimed freedom. Britain was defeated in the third Anglo-Afghan war in 1919-21, and Afghanistan regained control of its foreign affairs. Amanu'lah (‘king of 'reform) made land restitution, increased taxes, expanded education, and gave the country its first constitution. But his efforts to seize power from village elders and religious leaders led to a revolt, and he was deposed in 1938. The Tajik, known as Bacha - Saqao, seized power but was soon ousted and assassinated by Pashtun, Nadir Khan - who started a dynasty until 1978.
A new democracy:
Nadir Khan (aka Nadir Shah, shah me'ning'‘king’) allowed the village chiefs to become independent. He was killed by a student in 1933, followed by his 19-year-old son Mohamed Zahir (Zahir Shah). For 20 years, Zahir Shah was ruled by two of his uncles, successive prime ministers. The second uncle introduced' the ‘free parliament that lasted from 1949 until 1952 when Shah'sShah's cousin, Daoud, took over as Prime Minister and in 1955 turned to the Soviet Union for military assistance. In 1963 Zahir Shah sought to promote constitutional sovereignty under the ‘YouDemocracy'cracy,’ which lasted from 1964 to 1973. At this time, the scholars enjoyed great freedom; women began to enter the workplace and government. Zahir Shah has decided to introduce a representative form of government, but the law that allows the existence of political parties has never been signed.
Hunger for change:
In 197King'sKing’s cousin, Daoud, staged a protest, declaring Afghanistan as a republic and the President himself. Cold War rivals, the USSR and the US, came to the country's aid ($ 2.52 billion and $ 533 million respectively between 1955 and 1978). DDaoud'saoud's brief reign, the country benefited from oil and gas revenues. There were other chaWomen'somen's rights are guaranteed by Daoud. Kabul was now full of students, and its University was the center of political ideology - Communist and Islamic. Women and men study together and meet foreign teachers. They were hungry for change.
Communism - Afghan-style:
On April 27, 1978, Daoud was overthrown and killed in the Saur Revolution, which led bPeople'sople's Democratic Party (PDPA) of Afghanistan. The internal conflict quickly divided the group. Parham (‘'manner) - leaders of one party were ousted while another party, K'alq ''ass’ ’), led by Noor Mohammed Taraki, took over. These days they attacked the Muslims, ruled by decree, and received little support. Radical changes led to local revolts and military uprisings; soldiers rebelled against opposition groups. The USSR extended aid to the Taraki regime; The US, meanwhile, actively supported opposition groups. Despite pressure from the Soviets to change their unpopular policies, the Tarakian government refused. Fearing that the US would seize the opportunity of an uprising, USSR President Breshnev sent troops in December 1979. He believed that Soviet troops would be able to withdraw after six months.
Vietnam of the USSR:
Meanwhile, Taraki was overthrown and allegedly tortured by rival party leader Hafizullah Amin, who was also killed by Soviet troops entering his palace. The Russian people included Babrak Kamal, the head of the party of Pasham, who chTaraki'sraki's unpopular policies and declared allegiance to Islam. But the presence of foreign troops on Afghan soil had already sparked violence across the country. Soviet troops responded by destroying agriculture and livestock by cutting off supplies in protest. Russian city bombings have claimed the lives of nearly one million Afghans. The secret police organized by the KGB has spread fear throughout the city. The number of Soviet troops reached 120,000, but the resistance was still growing - and it was international. Support cameMujahidin'sidin's exiled groups in Pakistan who were heavily supported by the US, Saudi Arabia, and China.
The US, determined to make Afghanistan a ‘V'etnam’ of Russia, has poured money and weapons to equip the opposition with Pakistani secret intelligence operations known as ISI. The most influential figure in the US was Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, known to the CIA for his 'fascist and''evil' views. Scholars, in particular, were targeted by his assassination campaigns. Support for anti-communism also came from Britain and Pakistan. In the late 1980s, aid from the US and Saudi Arabia amounted to about $ 1 billion a year, while between 1986 and 1990, about $ 5 billion weapons went to the ‘holy wa'riorAfghanistan'sstan’s Mujahidin.
Soviet withdrawal:
The project has claimed at least 14,000 Russian lives and costs the USSR more than $ 5 billion a year. New President Mikhail Gorbachev is ready to step down, leaving behind a ‘friendly government in Afghanistan. Dr. Najibullah, head of the Afghan Intelligence Service, was appointed President. The last Soviet troops were withdrawn in February 1989; the project had left 1.5 million Afghan people, five million disabled, and five million refugees. The Mujahideen were able to seize large parts of Afghanistan, fighting the Russian doll, Najibullah. In April 1992, they took Kabul and declared the Islamic state. Burhanuddin Rabbani was elected President, but the successors of the Mujahidin were far from united, and there was an intense struggle.
Battling swarlords:
Officials Abdul Rashid Dostum and Ahmad Shah Massoud entered Kabul to prevent the city's capture by war rival Gulbuddin Hekmatyar and his allies. Four major factions, each with its foreign allies, are vying for control of Kabul. In August 1992, the UN reported that more than 1,800 civilians were killed, and 500,000 fled. At the end of 1992, Kabul became embittered by the actions of competing warlords; 5,000 people were killed, and about a million fled their homes. Many former party leaders excused rape.
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