Submarine
Fulton makes significant advances in the design of underwater boats.
In 1797, Robert Fulton (1765-1815), a Pennsylvania-born artist and inventor, offered to build a submarine for the French, engaged in a bitter war with Britain. He proposed to use the vessel to sink a Royal Navy warship blocking French ports. The French government hesitated to become involved in what they regarded as a dishonorable style of warfare. Undeterred, Fulton developed his machine, gaining French financial backing after Napoleon made himself First Consul in 1799.
Fulton’s “mechanical Nautilus” was launched on the river seine at Rouen in 1800. Its inventor described it as “six and a half meters long and two meters wide……built entirely of wood.” It had a mast and sail for propulsion on the surface, which were lowered when it submerged by filling its water tanks. The crew of two to four stay underwater for around four hours, thanks to a supply of compressed air. Submerged, the vessel was driven by a hand-cranked propeller and could maneuver using vertical and horizontal rudders. Candles lighted the interior, and a glass dome allowed the crew to see around them when semi submerged. Like Bushnell’s Turtle of 1775, the Nautilus depended on underwater explosives-primitive sea mines to attack enemy ships.
After successful tests in the Seine, the Nautilus showed its ability to sink a target ship at Brest in July 1801. However, the French refused permission for Fulton to attack British warships and withdrew their support. Fulton tried to interest Britain in his invention, but as the dominant naval power, they had no motive to pursue a revolutionary form of warfare.
Gas stove
Winzler’s innovation brings gas to the kitchen.
Humankind has been preparing food in countless ways for many thousands of years, but perhaps the most important innovation was decided to cook food in the first place. Open flame-worked for a time, but as humans became civilized, so did their cooking. The Chinese and Japanese had closed stoves from the second and third centuries B.C.E., respectively, long before the rest of the world. By the 15thcentury, Europe had moved toward a modern stove, but the whole world relied on wood, charcoal, coal, or oil to fuel cooking until the 19th century.
Gas cooking was introduced by Winzler (1750-c,1803) in 1802. Winzler, Moravian chemical manufacture living in Austria, began hosting dinner parties where the food was cooked using a small gas cooker complete with four burners and an oven. However, gas stoves did not appear in other kitchens for another thirty years.
One kitchen got a gas stove in 1826, years before they were commercially available. James sharp, a manager with England’s Northampton Gas Company, used his home kitchen as a testing facility and installed a gas cooker of his design.
Gas cooking eventually caught on, and by 1834 sharp, with the financial help of Earl Spencer, started producing cookies for sales. The business was sluggish until the 1850s, when gas pipeline brought the fuel within the average household’s reach. By the 1880s, gas cooking had become all the rage. Since then, stoves have gone electric and microwave, then at dinner parties worldwide, you will still find gas stoves helping hosts serve hungry guests.
Laser
Maiman invents a versatile optical light device.
Laser standing for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation is now part of everyday life. They form a critical component of CD and DVD players and the scanners used at supermarket checkouts. Their ability to direct energy with pinpoint precision gives them a broad spectrum of uses as dental drills, metal cutters, welders, and scalpels for eye surgery.
The laser process being with a population of atoms that have been optically pumped so that there are more atoms at a higher energy level than at a lower level. Decay then produces photons of light that stimulate the emission of other pollutions, so a cascade of photons is made. The lasing substance is contained in a resonant cavity that has mirrors at each end. Photons travel back and forth between the two mirror stimulating feedback and the system “laser” if the gain due to produce emission exceeds the losses due to absorption and scattering. One of the mirrors is half-silvered, and the radiation that passes through this forms the beam of laser light.
Albert Einstein discussed it stimulate emission as early as 1916, but the actual phenomenon was first produced in 1954 using microwaves, therefore MASER. In May 1960, Theodore Maiman (1927-2007), working at the Hughes Research Laboratories in California, used a synthetic ruby crystal to produce the first operating pulsed laser.
There are now many different kinds of lasing materials. Some are solid, such as ruby and garnet, whereas others are gases such as helium and liquid solutions of organic dyes.
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