In its long history, Chinese civilization was more advanced than that of Europe. But by the end of the nineteenth century, its progress had halted. The Manchus, the ruling dynasty, had governed China since about 1650. The entire administration system was in the hands of a bureaucracy of scholar-officials called mandarins who came from the landed gentry. The mass of peasant population was poverty-stricken, and suffered from high rents, high taxes, and shortage of land. There was very little industry, though some railways and engineering works had been built.
Discontent with the political and economic system resulted in a number of peasant uprisings. The Taiping Rebellion (1850–64) was a major rebellion. The death toll was 20 million. At a time when the government was becoming unpopular and weak, European pressure on China to open its doors to foreign trade was also increasing. In the two opium wars of 1832 and 1848 China was defeated and was compelled to open its ports to western powers. The opening of China to western imperialism led to economic exploitation and the impoverishment of the Chinese people.
The European presence produced a profound hatred of foreigners. This combined with military defeat, led to more pressing demands for reforms from the Western-educated intellectuals. In 1898, the young Emperor, initiated a series of reforms known as the Hundred Days of Reform. But these reforms aroused tremendous opposition from the powerful conservatives and the Dowager Empress Tzu Hsi. She imprisoned the Emperor and reversed the reforms.
Despite its incompetence and weakness, the Manchu government lasted until two years before the First World War
The disintegration of the Manchu dynasty began with the death of the Dowager- Empress in 1908. The new emperor was two-years old and the provincial governors began to assert their independence. In October 1911 the local army mutinied and the revolt spread. Provincial governors removed the Manchu garrisons and proclaimed their independence. Already there were a few middle-class leaders. Dr. Sun Yat sen was one among them. On hearing the news of the rising in a newspaper in the United States Sun Yat-sen arrived in Shanghai and was immediately elected provisional president of the new Chinese Republic. But Yuan Shih-kai, who had earlier served as a minister in the Manchu administration, had full control of the modern army in the north. He succeeded in persuading those responsible for the ascension of the young Emperor to prevail on him to abdicate. A republic was also set up.
The unity of China under Yuan Shih kai lasted for four years. During this time it was clear that Yuan was opposed to both democracy and republicanism. The Kuomintang Party was crushed. Yuan lost prestige in the eyes of nationalism, when he agreed to the demand of Japan to have economic control of Manchuria and Shantung. On his death in 1916 a new President was appointed for the next twelve years but the government was central only in name. During this period of anarchy in China, Marxist ideas were developing in the north of China, parallel to Sun Yat sen’s activities in the coastal cities between Shanghai and Canton.
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